古希腊哲学（英文） 53页

ClassicalGreekPhilosophy\nSocratesSimplemanStonemasonShrewishwifeLoyalserviceinthewarIncredibleconcentrationWisestmaninAthens(oracle)Gadfly(Dialectics/Socraticmethod)“Theunexaminedlifeisnotworthliving.”\nSocratesConvictedof“corruptingtheyouth”Describedas“thebestandwisest”and“mostnoble”man\nPlatoStudentofSocratesTheAcademyMathematicsWhatistherealnatureofthings?\nWhatmakesthisaChair?Chairness\nPlatoTheRepublicIdealsocietyRulebythephilosophersTheAllegoryoftheCave\nPlatoSuperiorityoftheintellectuallifePlatonicloveDevaluedthephysicalCreationbytheDemiurgeShapingimperfectmatterintotheperfectFormEthicsFindtheForminallthings\nAristotleTaughtbyPlatoLyceumNaturalsciencesTruthisbestunderstoodfromobservationoflivingthingsCapableinmanyareasFormscanbeunderstoodfromthephysicalaswellasfromthepurelyintellectual\nAristotleAristotelianScientificMethodUsedfor2000yearsBasicassumptionsbasedonreasoningDeductivemethodObservationsusedtoconfirmtheassumptionsExample:Elementsofearth(4)andheavensExample:QualitiesofthingsDidnotemployexperimentationDisturbsnature\nAristotleFourCausalQuestions(Physics)MaterialQuestion(Whatisitmadeof?)EfficientQuestion(Whatcausedit?)FormalQuestion(WhatisitsFormoressence?)FinalQuestion(Whatisitsfinalendorpurpose?)\nAristotleExample:AMouseMaterial:moleculesEfficient:birthFormal:dna(information)Final:fulfillitspurposeasacreatureofGod\nAristotleMotionBodiesmovetoachievetheirstable("natural")positionHeavierbodiesfallfasterPoeticsRhetoricEthos=powerofpersuasioncreatedbythecharacterofthespeaker(GettysburgAddress)Pathos=powerofpersuastioncreatedbythepassionofthespeaker(IHaveaDreamspeech)EthicsActtoavoidextremes\nThankYou\nZenoEpicurusAverroesAnaximanderPythagorasAnaxagorasHypatiaParmenidesEschinesAlcibiadesXenophonAlexanderSocratesHeraclitusPlatoAristotleDiogenesEuclidZoroasterPtolemyRaphaelClassicalGreekPhilosophy\nSocrates470-399BCDividedphilosophyinto2groupsPre-SocraticsAfterwerebaseduponhisethicsandmethodsPhilosophersversusSophistsBelievedinasingle,allpowerfulGodUseddialectics(SocraticMethod)tofindultimatetruth\nSocratesTakentotrial(Apology)Convicted—hedidnotputonadefenseSentencedtodeathDrankhemlock(Phaedo)\n“Theunexaminedlifeisnotworthliving.”–Socrates\nPlato427-347BCStudentofSocratesBornanaristocratFoundedtheAcademyFirstuniversityPurpose-thinkingaboutdeepermeaningsWrotedialoguesofSocrates,hisownpoliticaltheoryandworksofethics\nPlatoFormsorIdeasContinuationofSocrates’"ultimatenature"EssenceofsomethingliesintheFormFormhasperfection"Ideals"comesfrom"Idea"="Form"ImmaterialthingsalsohadFormsForinstance:OurremembranceoftheFormofbeautyallowsustoseebeautyinotherthings\nOneofPlato’scriticssaid:“Iseeparticularhorses,butnothorseness.”Platoanswered:“Thatisbecauseyouhaveeyesbutnointelligence.”\nPlatoSpiritualismorerealthanthephysical(Timaeus)Physicalchanges,FormiseternalTruthcannotbeperceivedbythesensesPerfectionisonlyfoundintheFormsAtdeath,thesoulmigratestotheWorldofPureFormWhatistheconceptofaperfectGod?\nPlatoTheRepublicIdeaoftheperfectsociety“Whatisthenatureofreality?”Philosophersemergingfromthecave\nPlatoMathematicsSupportedPythagoreanschoolMathistheorganizingrulesfortheFormswhichcombineinvariousgeometricshapestocreateallthingsSignonthedooroftheAcademy“Letnooneignorantofgeometryenterhere”\nAristotle384-322BCSonofaphysicianBorninMacedoniaAttendedtheAcademyBecamePlato’sforemoststudentLefttheAcademywhenPlatodiedFoundedtheLyceuminAthensMorefocusedinnaturalscience\nAristotleFormsSomeFormshavequalitiesandquantitiesthatarenotfixed(andthereforenot"perfect")ColorsormeasurementsFormscanbeperceivedfromtheobjectitselfbyobservationandfrommanyothersthathavesimilarFormstodevelopthenatureoftheFormofthatthingTruenatureisunderstoodbyobservationClassificationofthesciences\nAristotleWroteonphysicsUniverseiseternal,finiteandsphericalEarthiscenteroftheuniverseWorldcomposedof4elements(earth,fire,water,air)Heavenscomposedofaether4elementsaffectedbyqualities(dry,cold,wet,hot)RealobjectsarecompositesofFormandmatterPlatodidnotvaluematterNoteAristotle’sthinking—spiritandbody\nAristotleFourCasualQuestions(Physics)MaterialQuestionEfficientQuestionFormalQuestionFinalQuestionExample:AMouseIsthefinalcauseperfection?Cananythingbeperfect?\n"Nothingwedesignormakeeverreallyworks.Wecanalwayssaywhat[more]itoughttodo,butthatitneverdoes.Theaircraftfallsoutoftheskyorramstheearthfulltiltandkillsthepeople.Ithastobetendedlikeanewbornbabe...Ourdinnertableoughttobevariableinsizeandheight,removablealtogether,impervioustoscratches,self-cleaning,andhavingnolegs...Neverdoweachieveasatisfactoryperformance."–Petroski,HenryTheEvolutionofUsefulThings,VintageBooks,1994,pp.25.\nAristotleDevelopedrulesoflogicSyllogismAlltreesneedlight.Anoakistree.Therefore,oaksneedlight.InductiveThisdogneedslungs,thereforealldogsneedlungsDeductiveAlldogshavelungs,thereforethisdoghaslungsAristotlefavoreddeductivereasoning\nAristotleWroteonpoliticsAssembled158constitutionstocompareThreetypeofgovernmentsexistedRulebyoneman—monarchy/tyrannyRulebyafewmen—aristocracy/oligarchyRulebymany—polity/democracyIndividualconsideredgreaterthanthestate\nAristotleWroteonethicsNicomacheanEthicsHappinesssoughtafternaturallyThreelevelsofhappinessBasedonpleasureBasedonhonorBasedoncontemplation,philosophyAdvocatedtheGoldenMeanMoneyisnotthemeanstohappiness\nAristotleWroteRhetoricBookdescribingspeechtoinfluenceothersEthos—powerofpersuasioncreatedbythecharacterPathos—powerofpersuasioncreatedbypassionLogos—powerofpersuasioncontainedinthespeechitself\nAristotle'InfluenceTaughtAlexanderthegreatThereforewasmistrustedbyAtheniansBasisoflattermedievalscienceandreligionIdeashadinternalconsistencyIdeaswereadoptedbySt.ThomasAquinasandtheCatholicChurch\nSummary–GreekLegacyonLearningTheworldisrational(i.e.,science)TheworldcanbeunderstoodbyexaminingthefundamentalTruthisunchangingScienceisavailabletoallHowtolearnsystematicallyRulesoflogic\nThebeliefthattheuniversepossessesandisgovernedaccordingtoacomprehensiveregulatingintelligence,andthatthissameintelligenceisreflectedinthehumanmind,renderingitcapableofknowingthecosmicorder,wasoneofthemostcharacteristicandrecurringprinciplesinthecentraltraditionofHellenicthought.—Tarnas,ThePassionoftheWesternMind,p47.\n"IcannotbutgreatlywonderatthosewhothinkthatwemustattendtononebuttheGreeksastothemostancientfacts,andlearnthetruthfromthemonly,andthatwearenottobelieveourselvesorothermen...IndeedtheyadmitthemselvesthatitistheEgyptians,theChaldeansandthePhoenicians(forIwillnotnowincludeourselves[Jews]amongthose)thathavepreservedthememoryofthemostancientandlastingtradition."–Josephus,(QuotedinToulminandGoodfield,TheDiscoveryofTime,TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1965,p.25.)\n“Myadviceistogetmarried:ifyoufindagoodwifeyou’llbehappy;ifnotyou’llbecomeaphilosopher.”DeepPhilosophyFromSocrates\nThankYou\n“Theonlyusefulknowledgeisthatwhichbettersus.”-Socrates\nPlatovs.AristotleParticularwaslessrealSubstanceistransitoryFormisstaticFearofchangeFoundedacademyMysticBelittlerofnaturalscienceMath—highestformofthinkingUniversewaslessrealSubstanceneedsmatterTruenatureevolvesChangeinevitabletoprogressFoundedLyceumLogicianObserverofnaturalscienceSeparatedmathandscience\nPlatonicvs.Pre-SocraticWorldisanorderedcosmosPervasiveintelligenceOrdertranscendsphysicalmanifestationCompleteknowledgeFullunderstandingsatisfiesthemindandsoulKnowledgeacquiredthroughreasonTruthistransitoryNaturalphenomenaareimpersonalandphysicalTheorymeasuredagainstempiricalknowledgeNothoughtisfinal\n“Concerningthegods,Ihavenomeansofknowingwhethertheyexistornot,norofwhatformtheyare;fortherearemanyobstaclestosuchknowledge,includingtheobscurityofthesubjectandtheshortnessofhumanlife.”—Protagoras(aSophist)\nSocratesTaughtabarbarianthePythagoreanTheoremKnowledgeisintuitiveandismerelyrevealedbylearning“Knowthyself.”–Socrates+=\n"[ForPlato]knowingisanactofmakingtheobservableworldintelligiblebyshowinghowitisrelatedtoaneternalorderofintelligibletruths.“–Palmer,Donald,DoestheCenterHold?,MountainView,CA:MayfieldPublishingCompany,1991,p.58.\n"Theessence(or'form,'ashe[Aristotle]calledit,borrowingPlato'sterm...)isthething's'whatness,'anditsmaterialityisits'thisness.'Thatis,anoaktree's'whatness,'its'essence'or'form,'isthecombinationofcharacteristicsthatmakeitanoaktreeratherthan,say,apussycat;andits'thisness'isitsindividuality–whatdistinguishesthisoaktreefromallotheroaktrees."–Palmer,Donald,DoestheCenterHold?,MountainView,CA:MayfieldPublishingCompany,1991,p.162-163.\n“Aristotle’suniversewascomposedofapluralityofrealbeingsthatfellintoanorderlyhierarchyofperfection.Primematterandsubstantialformweretheprinciplesofeveryphysicalbody.Thesimplestbodiesoccurringinnaturewerethefourelements,earth,air,fireandwater.Thesecombinedtoproducethevarioustypesofinanimateobjects.Livingthingsweremorecomplexbodieswhichwereunitedbyahighertypeofsubstantialform,calledsoul.Aristotledistinguishedthreetypesofsouls,vegetative,sensitive,andrational,correspondingtothedegreesofperfectionfoundinplants,animals,andhumanbeings.”—LangfordinGalileo,ScienceandtheChurch\nSocratesSocraticMethodPosedquestionsandthenquestionedtheanswersSearchedfortheultimatenatureofqualitiesWhatisDuty?WhatisTruth?WhatisEvil?\nHappinessistheconsequencenotofphysicalorexternalcircumstances,ofwealthorpowerorreputation,butoflivingalifethatisgoodforthesoul.Yettoliveagenuinelygoodlife,onemustknowwhatisthenatureandessenceofthegood.—RichardTarnasinThePassionoftheWesternMindSocratestaught:\n"TheworksofHomerhadembodiedthearistocraticvaluesthatPlatowishedtosupport,butHomerhadofferednodefenseofthosevaluesexceptanappealtotheemotionsthroughhispoeticdiscourse.IfPlatowastodefendvaluesrationally,hehadtoreplacethepowerofpoetry(asmanifestedinGreekmythanddrama)withthatofphilosophy,thespokeswomanforreason."–Palmer,Donald,DoestheCenterHold?,MountainView,CA:MayfieldPublishingCompany,1991,p.60.\nFromthePythagoreanperspective,thefundamentalsofexistencearethearchetypalFormsorIdeas,whichconstitutetheintangiblesubstrateofallthatistangible.Thetruestructureoftheworldisrevealednotbythesenses,butbytheintellect,whichinitshigheststatehasdirectaccesstotheIdeasgoverningreality.Allknowledgepresupposestheabstractionorimaginarymetaphorfortheconcreteworld,ishereconsideredtobetheverybasisofreality,thatwhichdeterminesitsorderandrendersitknowable.Tothisend,PythagorasandlaterPlatodeclareddirectexperienceofthetranscendentIdeastobethephilosopher’sprimarygoalandultimatedestination.—Tarnas,ThePassionoftheWesternMind,p12.\n"[ForPlato]theCreationofthecosmoswastheprocessbywhichtheeternalmathematicalprinciplesweregivenmaterialembodiment,imposinganorderontheformlessrawmaterialsoftheworld,andsettingthemworkingaccordingtoidealspecifications...Whenamathematicianworkedoutthegeometricalrelationsmanifestedinthemotionsoftheplanets,orthepropertiesofmaterialsubstances,hewaslikewiserevealingtheCraftsman'srationaldesign.“–Toulmin,StephenandJuneGoodfield,TheDiscoveryofTime,TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1965,p.42-43.\n"Aristotlebelievedthattheworldwearebornintoistherealworldandisnotjustashadowofamoreultimateworld.HebroughtPlato'sphilosophydowntoearthbyclaimingthattheFormsmustbe'imbeddedinmatter.'HebelievedthatthedistinctionbetweenFormandmatterwasonlyanintellectualdistinction,adistinctionthatcouldbedrawnintheorybutnotinreality."–Palmer,Donald,DoestheCenterHold?,MountainView,CA:MayfieldPublishingCompany,1991,p.448.\n“Goodpeopledonotneedlawstotellthemtoactresponsibly,whilebadpeoplewillfindawayaroundthelaws.”Plato